TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY - Preferred Property: The template pores are present in the porous template with a pore density of 1012 and 3x1015 pores/m2. The first charge-transfer material is in the form of tubule(s) disposed in the template pores, each tubule having a tubule pore. Preferred Dimension: The template pores are 2-500, 40-100, or 10-30 nm in diameter. They are spaced apart by an average distance of 10-500 or 30-50 nm center-to-center. An average wall thickness between neighboring template pores is less than 5 nm, less than 20 nm, or 5-40 nm. The template pores have an average wall thickness of 0.5-20 nm. The porous template is 50 nm and 1 microns thick, 100-200 nm thick or 200-600 nm thick. The tubule pores have an average diameter of 1-200, 1-100, 10-50, 20-40, or 30 nm.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Method: The porous template has been formed by anodizing a layer of metal from aluminum or titanium. Preferred Material: The porous template is made of alumina or titania (TiO2). It can be made also of silica, zinc oxide, zirconium oxide, lanthanum oxide, niobium oxide, tungsten oxide, tin oxide, indium oxide, indium tin oxide (ITO), strontium oxide, vanadium oxide, molybdenum oxide, calcium/titanium oxide, or blends of two or more such materials. The first charge-transfer material includes a metal, a transparent conductive oxide, ITO, fluorinated tin oxide (F:SnOx), a conductive oxide, or TiO2. The interfacial layer includes conductive layer(s), metal layer(s), nickel or their oxides, or gold.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Material: At least one of the first and second charge-transfer materials is an organic material that can absorb light in the bulk of the organic material. The first charge-transfer material includes an organic material, a doped fullerene, or doped 60C. At least one of the first and second charge-transfer materials is a pigment or dye from organic pigments or dyes, azodyes having azo chromophores (-N=N-) linking aromatic groups, phthalocyanines including metal-free phthalocyanine (HPc), perylenes, naphthalocyanines, squaraines, merocyanines and their respective derivatives, poly(silanes), poly(germinates), 2,9-Di(pent-3-yl)-anthra(2,1,9-def:6,5, 10-d'e'f')diisoquinoline-1,3,8,10-tetrone, or 2,9-Bis-(1-hexyl-hept-1-yl)-anthra(2,1,9-def:6,5,10-d'e'f')diisoquinoline-1,3,8,10-tetrone. An interfacial layer (104) is disposed between the two charge-transfer materials. It includes material(s) from fullerenes, doped fullerenes, functionalized fullerenes, doped functionalized fullerenes, azafullerenes, polymerized fullerenes (doped or undoped), functionalized polymerized fullerenes (doped or undoped), carbon nanotubes, dyes, ruthenium dyes, or pigments. The interfacial layer includes chemical(s) that can covalently attach to the first charge-transfer material and change a surface energy of the first charge transfer material, chemical(s) that can covalently attach to the first charge-transfer material and change bonding of the first charge transfer material, chemical(s) that can covalently attach to the first charge-transfer material and change trap-states of the first charge transfer material one or more chemicals that can attach to dangling-bonds at an exposed surface of the first charge-transfer material, chemical(s) that can introduce a dipole layer that may increase the efficiency for charge extraction, and/or chemical(s) that can reduce detrimental charge recombination. A surface of the first charge-transfer material is functionalized with silylating agent(s). An intermediate layer is disposed between the porous template and the base electrode.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Method: The porous template has been formed by anodizing a layer of metal from aluminum or titanium. Preferred Material: The porous template is made of alumina or titania (TiO2). It can be made also of silica, zinc oxide, zirconium oxide, lanthanum oxide, niobium oxide, tungsten oxide, tin oxide, indium oxide, indium tin oxide (ITO), strontium oxide, vanadium oxide, molybdenum oxide, calcium/titanium oxide, or blends of two or more such materials. The first charge-transfer material includes a metal, a transparent conductive oxide, ITO, fluorinated tin oxide (F:SnOx), a conductive oxide, or TiO2. The interfacial layer includes conductive layer(s), metal layer(s), nickel or their oxides, or gold.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - POLYMERS - Preferred Material: The first charge-transfer material includes polyethylene dioxythiophene. At least one of the first and second charge-transfer materials includes a material from poly(phenylene) or their derivatives, poly(phenylene vinylene) or their derivatives, poly(2-methoxy-5-(2-ethyl-hexyloxy)-1,4-phenylene vinylene (MEH-PPV), poly(para-phenylene vinylene) (PPV), PPV copolymers, poly(thiophene) or their derivatives, regioregular poly(3-octylthiophene-2,5,-diyl), regiorandom poly(3-octylthiophene-2,5,-diyl), poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT), regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl), regiorandom poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl), poly(thienylenevinylene) or their derivatives, poly(isothianaphthene) or their derivatives, tetra-hydrothiophene precursors or their derivatives, organometallic polymers, polymers containing perylene units, poly(squaraines) and their derivatives, discotic liquid crystals. polyfluorenes, polyfluorene copolymers, polyfluorene-based copolymers and blends, co-polymerized and/or blended with charge transporting and/or light-absorbing compounds, tri-phenyl-amines and derivatives, fused thiophene rings and derivatives, or hetero-atom ring compounds with or without substituents. The interfacial layer also includes material(s) from organic monomers, oligomers, and polymers, tetra-hydro-thiophene precursor polymers or their derivatives, or poly-phenylene-vinylene or their derivatives, or conjugated polymers.