TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - ELECTRONICS - Preferred Components: The first semiconductive material of one thermoelectric element can function as the first semiconductive material of another thermoelectric element. At least one of the first semiconductive materials of thermoelectric element comprises semiconductive materials, e.g. single semiconductive material area contacting the respective second conductive material, two semiconductive material areas of the same type each contacting the respective second conductive material, or two semiconductive material areas (262, 263) of different types each contacting the respective second conductive material. At least one of the first semiconductive materials of thermoelectric elements is doped with p-doping, n-doping, depletion, or no doping. The first semiconductive materials of first and second thermoelectric elements are similarly or differently doped with at least two of p-doping, n-doping, depletion and no doping. At least one of the first semiconductive materials of thermoelectric elements comprises at least two separate semiconductive areas arranged in series with respect to the direction of electrical current flowing between the respective first and third conductive materials, or at least two separate semiconductive areas isolated electrically from each other and arranged in with parallel with respect to the direction of electrical current flowing between the first and third conductive materials. An insulator (261) is between and electrically isolates the two separate semiconductive material as electrical current flows between the first and third conductive materials. At least one of the first, second and third conductive materials of one thermoelectric element can function as the other of the first, second and third conductive materials for another thermoelectric element. The third conductive material of first thermoelectric element and the first conductive material of second thermoelectric element are constructed as a single conductive material area interconnecting the first and second thermoelectric elements or as two separate but electrically interconnected conductive material areas interconnecting the first and second thermoelectric elements. The intervening materials between first and third conductive materials of at least one of the thermoelectric elements increase thermal isolation between the conductive materials while reducing the associated Joule heating as electrical current flows between them. The electrical current path between the first and third conductive materials of at least one of the thermoelectric elements is separated from the thermal conduction path between the first and third conductive materials of at least one of the thermoelectric elements by the intervening materials between the conductive materials. For at least one of the thermoelectric elements, an edge of the first conductive material opposite to the respective first semiconductive material runs along a first horizontal axis, and an edge of the third conductive material opposite to the respective first semiconductive material runs along a second horizontal axis. The first and second horizontal axes are parallel. For at least one of the thermoelectric elements, the respective first semiconductive material is disposed parallel to a third axis having an angular relationship with the first and second horizontal axes e.g. parallel, perpendicular, obtuse angular or acute angular relationship with the first and second horizontal axes. At least one of the thermoelectric elements includes a second semiconductive material adjacent to and contacting the third conductive material at a first edge, a fourth conductive material within and contacting the second semiconductive material, and a fifth conductive material adjacent to and contacting the second semiconductive material at a second edge. The effective electrical resistance between the third and fifth conductive materials of respective thermoelectric element is controllably reduced below the effective series electrical resistance of second semiconductive material by design of the fourth conductive material as electrical current flows from the third conductive material to the fifth conductive material. Peltier cooling and Peltier heating counteract each other within the fourth conductive material as electrical current flows through so that heat is exchanged between the third and fifth conductive materials creating a temperature differential between them as electrical current flows between them.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - METALLURGY - Preferred Materials: At least one of the first semiconductive materials of first and second thermoelectric elements is made from nanotubes, carbon nanotubes, nanowires, silicon nanowires, nanomaterials, nanostructures, bismuth, boron, silicon, silicon-on-insulator, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium, polonium, silicon-germanium, bismuth telluride or superlattice materials. At least one of the first, second and third conductive materials of first and second thermoelectric elements is made from nanotubes, carbon nanotubes, nanowires, silicon nanowires, nanomaterials, nanostructures, flexible conductive materials, conductive plastics, conductive polymers, superlattice materials, aluminum, copper, tin, palladium, gold, silver, titanium, tungsten, iron, cobalt, nickel, zinc, molybdenum, cadmium, mercury, hafnium, tantalum, gallium, indium, thallium, lead, bismuth or alloy of these materials.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - POLYMERS - Preferred Materials: At least one of the first, second and third conductive materials of first and second thermoelectric elements may be made from conductive plastics or conductive polymers.