TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - BIOLOGY - Preferred Components: The microorganism comprises a bacterium, or a yeast.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Method: In the method (M1), the biomass feedstock is prepared and then pretreated; or the biomass feedstock is pretreated and then prepared. In the method (M1), reducing at least one dimension of individual piece of biomass involves shearing; the at least two pretreatment methods are applied to the biomass feedstock at or about the same time, where the at least two pretreatment methods involve radiation and sonication, and the radiation is in the form of an electron beam, where the electron beam radiation is applied at a total dosage of about 10 MRad and the sonication is applied at a total energy of more than 5 MJ/m3. In the method (M1), radiation precedes sonication; or sonication precedes radiation, where radiation and sonication are performed at or about the same time. In the method (M1), the change in molecular structure of the biomass feedstock involves a change in any at least one of an average molecular weight, average crystallinity, surface area, polymerization, porosity, branching, grafting, and domain size or number of the biomass; or a decrease in either one or both of an average molecular weight and average crystallinity of the biomass or an increase in either one or both of surface area and porosity of the biomass. The method (M2) involves selecting at least two different pretreatment methods, where the at least two different pretreatment methods involve radiation and sonication, radiation and oxidation, radiation and pyrolization, sonication and oxidation, sonication and pyrolization, or oxidation and pyrolization. The method (M2) further involves pretreating the biomass feedstock with steam explosion. The method (M2) does not include hydrolyzing the biomass with an acid or a base. In the method (M2), at least about 70 (preferably at least 95) wt.% of the biomass has not been hydrolyzed; or substantially none of the biomass has been hydrolyzed. In the method (M2), at least one pretreatment method is performed on biomass in which less than about 25 wt.% (preferably substantially none) of the biomass is wetted with a liquid, such as water, and the biomass has less than about 5 wt.% retained water, measured at 25 degrees C and at 50% relative humidity; or at least one pretreatment method is performed on biomass in which less than about 25 wt.% of the biomass is in a swollen state, where the swollen state has a volume of more than about 2.5% higher than an unswollen state, and the biomass is mixed with or includes a swelling agent, where the biomass receives a dose of less than about 10 Mrad of radiation. In the method (M2), at least one of the pretreatment method, e.g. radiation, is performed on the biomass feedstock while the biomass feedstock is exposed to air, and under a pressure of greater than about 2.5 atmosphere, such as greater than 5 or 10 atmosphere. The method (M2) further involves oxidizing, pyrolizing, or steam exploding the biomass. In the method (M2), converting involves fermenting the material to the product, such as the combustible fuel; the irradiation is performed utilizing an ionizing radiation such as gamma rays, a beam of electrons, or ultraviolet C radiation having a wavelength of 100-280 nm (preferably ionizing radiation such as gamma rays or a beam of electrons); ionizing radiation involves electron beam radiation, where the radiation is applied at a total dose of 10-150 Mrad, such as at a dose rate of 0.5-10 Mrad/day, or 1-10 Mrad/s; irradiating involves applying at least two radiation sources such as gamma rays and a beam of electrons; and sonication is performed at a frequency of 15-25 (preferably 18-22) kHz. In the method (M2), the biomass feedstock is prepared by shearing a biomass fiber source to provide a fibrous material, where the shearing is performed with a rotary knife cutter, the fibers of the fibrous material have an average length-to-diameter ratio of greater than 5/1, and the fibrous material has a BET surface area of greater than 0.25 m2/g. In the method (M2), the pretreated biomass material further comprises a buffer such as sodium bicarbonate or ammonium chloride; an electrolyte such as potassium chloride or sodium chloride; a growth factor such as biotin and/or a base pair such as uracil; a surfactant; a mineral; or a chelating agent; and the biomass feedstock is pretreated using at least three of radiation, sonication, pyrolysis, and oxidation, in any order, or at about the same time. The method of making a product such as the combustible fuel involves either: providing the material comprising the carbohydrate produced by pretreating the biomass feedstock with at least one of radiation, sonication, oxidation, pyrolysis, and steam explosion, where less than about 25 wt.% of the biomass is in a swollen state, and the swollen state has a volume of more than about 2.5% higher than a nominal, unswollen state; and contacting the material with the microorganism having the ability to convert at least a portion, e.g. at least about 1 wt.% of the material to the product such as the combustible fuel; providing the material comprising the carbohydrate produced by pretreating the biomass feedstock with at least one of radiation, sonication, oxidation, pyrolysis, and steam explosion, where less than about 25 wt.% of the biomass is hydrolyzed subsequent to pretreatment; and contacting the material with the microorganism having the ability to convert at least a portion of the material, e.g. at least about 1 wt.% to the product such as the combustible fuel; providing the material comprising the carbohydrate produced by pretreating the biomass feedstock with at least one of radiation, sonication, oxidation, pyrolysis, and steam explosion, where less than about 25 wt.% of the biomass is in contact with a liquid, such as water; and contacting the material with a microorganism having the ability to convert at least a portion e.g. at least about 1 wt.% of the material to the product such as the combustible fuel; or providing the material comprising the carbohydrate produced by pretreating a sheared biomass feedstock with at least one of radiation, sonication, oxidation, pyrolysis, and steam explosion; and contacting the material with the microorganism having the ability to convert at least a portion e.g. at least about 1 wt.% of the material to the product such as the combustible fuel, where the sheared biomass comprises discrete fibers having a length-to-diameter ratio (L/D) of greater than about 5/1, the biomass has internal fibers and the biomass has been sheared to an extent that its internal fibers are substantially exposed, and the biomass has been sheared to an extent that it has a bulk density of less than about 0.35 g/cm3. Preferred Components: The carbohydrate comprises at least one beta -1,4-linkage and has a number average molecular weight of 3000-50000. Preferred Material: In the carbohydrate material, the pretreating is performed with at least two of radiation, sonication, oxidation, pyrolysis, and steam explosion. The carbohydrate material is produced by a process involving pretreating a biomass feedstock with at least two of radiation, sonication, oxidation, pyrolysis, and steam explosion, where the pretreating is performed with at least three of radiation, sonication, oxidation, pyrolysis, and steam explosion. Preferred System: The system (S1) further comprises a vessel. In the system (S2), the vessel also contains the microorganism in contact with the material, where the microorganism has the ability to convert at least a portion of the material to the product such as the combustible fuel; an enzyme in contact with the material, where the enzyme has the ability to react with at least a portion of the material; a buffer such as sodium bicarbonate or ammonium chloride; an electrolyte such as potassium chloride or sodium chloride; a growth factor such as biotin and/or a base pair such as uracil; a surfactant; a mineral; and a chelating agent; and the vessel has a total volume of greater than about 1000 (preferably greater than 5000) L. The system (S2) comprises a radiation module and a sonication module; or the radiation module and the pyrolysis module; and further comprises the oxidation module; and a fermentation module. In the system (S2), the at least two modules comprise the radiation module and the sonication module, and the biomass transportation subsystem is arranged either to move biomass from the radiation module to the sonication module or vice versa, and from the preparation module to the pretreatment modules and vice versa; or to move biomass from the radiation module to the pyrolysis module or vice versa. In the system (S2), several of the at least two modules are implemented as parts of a single device; and the at least two different pretreatment modules comprise radiation and sonication modules, radiation and oxidation modules, radiation and pyrolization modules, sonication and oxidation modules, sonication and pyrolization modules, or oxidation and pyrolization modules. The system comprises at least three different pretreatment modules. In the system (S2), the biomass transportation subsystem is arranged to move biomass between modules in any order where the biomass transportation subsystem comprises a conveyor belt of fluidized bed. In the system (S2), the radiation module is arranged to apply a dose of radiation of 10-100 (preferably 10-50, especially 20-50) MRads to the biomass; or to apply a dose of radiation sufficient to change the structure of the biomass, e.g. to reduce the average molecular weight of the biomass, to reduce the average crystallinity of the biomass, to increase the surface area of the biomass, to change the polymerization of the biomass, to increase the porosity of the biomass, and/or to change the chemical structure of the biomass; the sonication module is arranged to apply sonic energy at a frequency of 15-25 kHz; or to apply sonic energy sufficient to change the structure of the biomass, e.g. to reduce the average molecular weight of the biomass, to reduce the average crystallinity of the biomass, to increase the surface area of the biomass, to change the polymerization of the biomass, to increase the porosity of the biomass, and/or to change the chemical structure of the biomass, where the radiation module comprises radioactive material or an electron beam emitter.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - POLYMERS - Preferred Components: In the method (M2), the biomass comprises a synthetic material, or a first cellulose having a first number average molecular weight; the fuel comprises at least one of hydrogen, alcohol, and hydrocarbon; and the carbohydrate material comprises a second cellulose having a second number average molecular weight lower than the first number average molecular weight, where the second number average molecular weight is lower than the first number average molecular weight by more than about one-fold, the first cellulose has a first crystallinity and the second cellulose has a second crystallinity lower than the first crystallinity, where the second crystallinity is lower than the first crystallinity by more than about 10%. The first cellulose has a first level of oxidation and the second cellulose has a second level of oxidation higher than the first level of oxidation. Preferred Composition: In the composition, the cellulosic or a lignocellulosic material has a porosity of greater than about 72%; a BET surface greater than about 0.75 m2/g; a bulk density of less than about 0.5 g/cm3; and comprises fibers having a length-to-diameter of greater than about 5. The composition further comprises an enzyme and/or a microbe. Preferred Method: The method (M3) further involves sonicating, e.g. prior to, after, or concurrently with the irradiating. EXAMPLE - No suitable example is given.