TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - BIOLOGY - Preferred Components: The organelle comprises hydrogenosome, chloroplast, or thylakoids (preferably chloroplast or thylakoids). The organelle comprises mitochondria, mitoplasts, peroxisome, or glyoxysome (preferably mitochondria or mitoplasts. The organelle comprises at least two organelles. The organelle comprises thylakoids and mitoplasts or mitochondria. The enzyme comprises an oxidoreductase, isomerase, transferase, mutase, or lyase. The enzyme comprises a glycolysis enzyme selected from hexokinase, phosphoglucose isomerase, phospho fructose kinase, pyrophosphate-dependent phosphofructokinase, aldolase, triosephosphate isomerase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, phosphoglycerate kinase, phosphoglycerate mutase, enolase and/or pyruvate kinase. The enzyme comprises a Kreb's cycle enzyme selected from aconitase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, succinyl-CoA synthetase, succinate dehydrogenase, fumarase, malate dehydrogenase and/or citrate synthase. The enzyme comprises hexokinase or phosphofructose kinase. The enzyme immobilization material comprises trimethyldodecylammonium modified perfluoro sulfonic acid-perfluoro sulfonic acid-polytetrafluoro ethylene copolymer. The enzyme comprises phosphoglucose isomerase or glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase. The enzyme immobilization material comprises tetrabutylammonium modified perfluoro sulfonic acid-perfluoro sulfonic acid-polytetrafluoro ethylene copolymer. The enzyme comprises aldolase. The enzyme immobilization material comprises trimethyltetradecylammonium modified perfluoro sulfonic acid-perfluoro sulfonic acid-polytetrafluoro ethylene copolymer. The fuel fluid (G1) is pyruvate.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY - Preferred Components: The organelle comprises an electron mediator; and an electrocatalyst. The organelle comprises an electron mediator and an electrocatalyst. The organelle immobilization material comprises a micellar or inverted micellar structure. The immobilization material stabilizes the organelle. The immobilization material or organelle immobilization material comprises perfluoro sulfonic acid-polytetrafluoro ethylene (PTFE) copolymer; modified perfluoro sulfonic acid-polytetrafluoro ethylene (PTFE) copolymer; polysulfone; micellar polymer; a poly(ethylene oxide) based block copolymer; a polymer formed from microemulsion and/or micellar polymerization; copolymers of alkyl methacrylates, alkyl acrylates, and styrenes; ceramics; sodium bis(2-ethylhexyl)sulfosuccinate; sodium dioctylsulfosuccinate; lipids; phospholipids; sodium dodecyl sulfate; decyltrimethylammonium bromide; tetradecyltrimethylammonium bromide; (4-((2- hydroxyl-l-naphthalenyl)azo)benzenesulfonic acid monosodium salt); linoleic acids; linolenic acids; colloids; liposomes; and/or micelle networks. The immobilization material or organelle immobilization material comprises a modified perfluoro sulfonic acid-PTFE copolymer. The immobilization material or organelle immobilization material is modified with a hydrophobic cation larger than (NH4)+. The immobilization material or organelle immobilization material is a hydrophobically-modified polysaccharide. The bioelectrode (b1) is a bioanode and either the enzyme is capable of reacting with a fuel fluid to produce an oxidized form of the fuel fluid, the enzyme is capable of releasing electrons to the electron conductor, and the organelle immobilization material is permeable to the fuel fluid; the enzyme is capable of reacting with an oxidized form of an electron mediator and a fuel fluid to produce an oxidized form of the fuel fluid and a reduced form of the electron mediator, the reduced form of the electron mediator is capable of releasing electrons to the electron conductor, and the organelle immobilization material is permeable to the fuel fluid; or the enzyme is capable of reacting with an oxidized form of an electron mediator and a fuel fluid to produce an oxidized form of the fuel fluid and a reduced form of the electron mediator, and the organelle immobilization material is permeable to the fuel fluid. The bioelectrode (b1) is a biocathode (A1) and either the enzyme is capable of reacting with an oxidant to produce water, the enzyme is capable of gaining electrons from the electron conductor, the organelle immobilization material is permeable to the oxidant; the enzyme is capable of reacting with a reduced form of an electron mediator and an oxidant to produce an oxidized form of the electron mediator and water, the oxidized form of the electron mediator is capable of gaining electrons from the electron conductor to produce the reduced form of the electron mediator, and the organelle immobilization material is permeable to the oxidant; or the enzyme is capable of reacting with a reduced form of an electron mediator and an oxidant to produce an oxidized form of the electron mediator and water, and the organelle immobilization material being permeable to the oxidant. The bioanode (B2) further comprises an electrocatalyst adjacent the electron conductor, an oxidized form of the electrocatalyst is capable of reacting with the reduced form of the electron mediator to produce an oxidized form of the electron mediator and a reduced form of the electrocatalyst capable of releasing electrons to the electron conductor. The bioanode (B2) further comprises an agent which inhibits the enzyme from reacting with the fuel fluid until the mitochondria is exposed to a nitroaromatic explosive; an alarm signal is produced when the nitroaromatic explosive is present; and an alarm that detects the alarm signal and provides an alert to the presence of the explosive. The biocathode (A1) further comprises an electrocatalyst adjacent the electron conductor, an oxidized form of the electrocatalyst is capable of gaining electrons from the electron conductor to produce a reduced form of the electrocatalyst that is capable of reacting with an oxidized form of the electron mediator to produce a reduced form of the electron mediator and an oxidized form of the electrocatalyst. The bioanode (B2) and biocathode (A1) are not separated by a salt bridge or a polymer electrolyte membrane.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Components: The hydrophobic redox mediator is a transition metal complex of osmium, ruthenium, iron, nickel, rhodium, rhenium, or cobalt with 1,10-phenanthroline (phen), 2,2'-bipyridine (bpy) or 2,2',2''-terpyridine (terpy), methylene green, methylene blue, poly(methylene green), poly(methylene blue), luminol, nitro-fluorenone derivative, azine, osmium phenanthrolinedione, catechol-pendant terpyridine, toluene blue, cresyl blue, nile blue, neutral red, phenazine derivative, tionin, azure A, azure B, azure C, toluidine blue O, acetophenone, a metallophthalocyanine, nile blue A, modified transition metal ligand, 1,10-phenanthroline-5,6-dione, 1,10-phenanthroline-5,6-diol, (Re(phen-dione)(CO)3Cl), (Re(phen-dione)3) (PFO)2, poly(metallophthalocyanine), poly(thionine), quinone, diimine, diaminobenzene, diaminopyridine, phenothiazine, phenoxazine, toluidine blue, brilliant cresyl blue, 3,4-dihydroxybenzaldehyde, poly(acrylic acid), poly(azure I), poly(nile blue A), polyaniline, polypyridine, polypyrole, polythiophene, poly(thieno(3,4-b)thiophene), poly(3-hexylthiophene), poly(3,4-ethylenedioxypyrrole), poly(isothianaphthene), poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene), poly(difluoroacetylene), poly(4-dicyanomethylene-4H-cyclopenta(2,1-b;3,4-d)dithiophene), poly(3-(4-fluorophenyl)thiophene) and/or poly(neutral red). The hydrophobic redox mediator is Ru((phen)3)-2, Fe((phen)3)+2, Os((phen)3)+2, Co((phen)3)+2, Cr((phen)3)+2, Ru((bpy)3)+2, Os((bpy)3)+2, Fe((bpy)3)+2, Co((bpy)3)+2, Cr((bpy)3)+2, Os((terpy)3)+2, Ru((bpy)2(4-methyl-4'-(6-hexyl)-2,2'-bipyridine))+2, Co((bpy)2(4-methyl-4'-(6-hexyl)-2,2'-bipyridine))+2, Cr((bpy)2(4-methyl-4'-(6-hexyl)-2,2'-bipyridine))+2, Fe((bpy)2(4-methyl-4'-(6-hexyl)-2,2'-bipyridine))+2 and/or Os((bpy)2(4-methyl-4'-(6-hexyl)-2,2'-bipyridine))+2. The hydrophobic redox mediator is Ru((bpy)2(4-methyl-4'-(6-hexyl)-2,2'-bipyridine)+2, Co((bpy)2(4-methyl-4'-(6-hexyl)-2,2'-bipyridine))+2, Cr((bpy)2(4-methyl-4'-(6-hexyl)-2,2'-bipyridine))+2, Fe((bpy)2(4-methyl-4'-(6-hexyl)-2,2'-bipyridine))+2 and/or Os((bpy)2(4-methyl-4'-(6-hexyl)-2,2'-bipyridine))+2. The electron conductor comprises a carbon-based material, metallic conductor, semiconductor, metal oxide and/or modified conductor. The electron conductor comprises carbon cloth, carbon paper, carbon screen printed electrodes, carbon black, carbon powder, carbon fiber, single-walled carbon nanotubes, double- walled carbon nanotubes, multi-walled carbon nanotubes, carbon nanotube arrays, diamond-coated conductors, glass carbon, mesoporous carbon, graphite, uncompressed graphite worms, delaminated purified flake graphite, high performance graphite, highly ordered pyrolytic graphite and/or pyrolytic graphite, polycrystalline graphite.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Components: The hydrophobic cation comprises an ammonium-based cation, quaternary ammonium cation, alkyltrimethylammonium cation, organic cation, phosphonium cation, triphenylphosphonium, pyridinium cation, imidazolium cation, hexdecylpyridinium, ethidium, viologen, methyl viologen, benzyl viologen, bis(triphenylphosphine)iminium, metal complex, bipyridyl metal complex, phenanthroline -based metal complex, (Ru(bipyridine)3)2+ or (Fe(phenanthroline)3)3+. The hydrophobic cation comprises a quaternary ammonium ion of formula N+(R1R2R3R4). The oxidant comprises oxygen or peroxide (preferably oxygen). The fuel fluid comprises ammonia, methanol, ethanol, propanol, isobutanol, butanol, isopropanol, an allyl alcohol, an aryl alcohol, glycerol, propanediol, mannitol, glucuronate, aldehyde, a carbohydrate, glucose, glucose-1, D-glucose, L-glucose, glucose-6-phosphate, lactate, lactate-6-phosphate, D-lactate, L-lactate, fructose, galactose-1, galactose, aldose, sorbose, mannose, glycerate, coenzyme A, acetyl Co-A, maleate, isocitrate, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acetate, citrate, L-gluconate, beta- hydroxysteroid, alpha-hydroxysteroid, lactaldehyde, testosterone, gluconate, a fatty acid, a lipid, phosphoglycerate, retinal, estradiol, cyclopentanol, hexadecanol, a long-chain alcohol, coniferyl-alcohol, cinnamyl-alcohol, formate, a long-chain aldehyde, pyruvate, butanal, acyl-CoA, a steroid, an amino acid, flavin, adenosine triphosphate, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), NADH2, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH), NADPH2 or H. The fuel fluid comprises glucose and/or pyruvate.R1-R4=hydrocarbyl, heterocyclo (both optionally substituted) or H (preferably H, methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl, hexyl, heptyl, octyl, nonyl or decyl).At least one of R1-R4 is other than hydrogen.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - POLYMERS - Preferred Components: The polysaccharide comprises chitosan, cellulose, chitin, starch and/or amylose. The polysaccharide is of formula (I). The polysaccharide has a molecular weight of 90000-500000 (preferably 225000-275000).n=integer;R10=hydrocarbyl (optionally substituted), H or hydrophobic redox mediator (preferably H, octyl, hydrophobic redox mediator or hexyl);R11=hydrocarbyl (optionally substituted), H or hydrophobic redox mediator (preferably H, hexyl, hydrophobic redox mediator or octyl). EXAMPLE - A homogenization buffer comprising tris hydrochloric acid (100 mM), sodium chloride, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (50 mM), bovine serum albumin (0.4%), cystine (0.1%), and dithiothreitol 28 mM) was prepared. The solution was mixed with the exception of the cystine and the dithiothreitol, then chilled in the fridge. The cystine and the dithiothreitol were mixed. Russet potatoes were quartered and immediately juiced in a kitchen juice extractor. The juice (100 ml) was collected in an equal amount of chilled homogenization buffer (100 ml). For the rest of the experiment the mitochondrial solution was kept at 4 degrees C. The juice and buffer were centrifuged at 500 revolutions per minutes (rpm) for 10 minutes, (2) 2600 rpm for 10 minutes, 2600 rpm for 15 minutes and 15557 rpm for 15 minutes, where the supernatant was retained for the next centrifugation operation and the precipitate was discarded to obtain wet mitochondria precipitate (T1). Wet mitochondria precipitate (T1) (18.7 mg) was suspended in phosphate buffer (1 ml) with sodium chloride. The mitochondrial suspension was mixed with Nafion (RTM: tetrabutyl ammonium bromide modified suspension) (100 mu l). The resulting solution was pipetted onto carbon paper electrodes (66.6 mu l). The electrodes were placed into a vacuum chamber to obtain a mitochondrial bioanode.