TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Process: The process further comprises annealing the nanotubes at 100-300 degrees C in an inert atmosphere or under vacuum for 15-60 minutes. The nanotubes formed are organized as bundles or arrays of nanotubes aligned in parallel. The process of pre-conditioning the titanium surface further comprises subsequent to step of establishing the voltage and carrying out the process of preparing (I) using the pre-conditioned titanium as the anode to form titania nanotubes. Preferred Components: The electrolyte solution comprises a chloride salt comprising ammonium chloride (preferred), sodium chloride, or potassium chloride. The acid is a mineral acid, which is hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid. The chloride salt is present at 0.05-0.4 M. The electrolyte comprises: a mixture of mineral acids and organic acids, and the carbon content of the resulting nanotubes is 0-40 atom%; and mixture of chlorine-free carboxylic acids and chlorine-containing carboxylic acids, and the carbon content of the resulting nanotubes are 20-50 atom%. The electrolyte solution is essentially free of fluoride or ions. The anode comprises a titanium metal foil. The cathode comprises platinum metal or graphite. The nanotube comprises at least 40 (preferably at least 0-50) atom% of carbon. The second electrolyte solution comprises an inorganic acid and a different proportion of trichloroacetic acid and the second carboxylic acid relative to the first electrolyte solution. The electrolyte solution has a pH of 1.5. The kit further comprises a fluoride-containing electrolyte solution for pre-conditioning the titanium anode surface.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Components: The electrolyte solution comprises an acid, which is an inorganic acid or an organic acid (comprising carboxylic acid containing formic acid, acetic acid, oxalic acid, gluconic acid, or trichloroacetic acid). The acid concentration is 0.5 M. The organic acid is trichloroacetic acid as a first carboxylic acid and a second carboxylic acid. The electrolyte solution is chloride-free. EXAMPLE - Titanium foil (0.127 mm thickness) was anodized at room temperature in a standard electrochemical cell with the foil serving as anode and a platinum mesh serving as cathode. Magnetic stirring was used to ensure the reagents remained properly mixed at all times. The electrolyte consisted of a solution with pH around 1.5 and a chloride ion concentration of 0.4 M. The electrolyte contained one of a series of acids, present at a concentration of 0.5. The anodization conditions for each acid are hydrochloric acid (0.02 mol/l), sulfuric acid (0.05 mol/l), 0.50 mol/l of trichloroacetic, oxalic acid, gluconic acid, and formic acid. The anode active area was kept constant at 1 cm x 2.5 cm, and the electrode spacing was 4 cm. Samples were anodized in an electrolyte solution for each of the acids at fixed voltages as low as 8 V and as high as 20 V. For all solutions, anodization at lower voltages (typically below 11 V) did not yield any nanotubes. However, for voltages above a specific threshold, titania nanotubes were found to form with each of the acids chosen, namely oxalic, formic, trichloroacetic, gluconic, hydrochloric, and sulfuric acids.