TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - CERAMICS AND GLASS - Preferred Material: The substrate includes material(s) comprising aluminosilicate glass, borosilicate glass, dichroic glass, germanium/semiconductor glass, silicate/fused silica glass, soda lime glass, quartz glass, chalcogenide/sulfide glass, fluoride glass, glass-based phenolic, or flint glass.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Component: The substrate includes aluminum. The back contact electrode includes stack(s) of the materials comprising molybdenum (Mo), chromium (Cr), titanium (Ti), tungsten (W), Mo/Mo-copper (Cu), Mo/Mo-indium (In), Mo/Mo-gallium (Ga), Mo/Mo-selenium (Se), Cr/Cr-Cu, Cr/Cr-In, Cr/Cr-gallium (Ga), Cr/Cr-Se, Ti/Ti-Cu, Ti/Ti-In, Ti/Ti-Ga, Ti/Ti-Se, W/W-In, W/W-Ga, or W/W-Se. The p-type semiconductor absorber layer formed on the back contact electrode includes Cu-In diselenide, Cu-In-Ga-diselenide, or sulfur doped Cu-In-Ga-diselenide. The p-type semiconductor absorber layer is manufactured by vacuum deposition process including co-evaporate Cu-In-Ga-Se in vacuum condition; co-evaporate Cu-In-Se in vacuum condition, sequentially deposit Cu, In, Ga or their alloy followed by annealing it in a selenium vapor environment at 400-700 degrees C; or sequentially deposit Cu, In, Ga or their alloy followed by annealing it in an atmosphere containing Se and sulfur vapors at 400-700 degrees C. The p-type semiconductor absorber layer is manufactured by electroplating process including sequentially electroplating Cu, In, Ga, Se or their alloy followed by annealing at 400-700 degrees C, sequentially electroplating Cu, In, Ga or their alloy followed by annealing in a selenium vapor environment at 400-700 degrees C, sequentially electroplating Cu, In, Se or their alloy followed by annealing in a selenium vapor environment at 400-700 degrees C. The n-type semiconductor layer includes cadmium sulfide. The transparent conductive layer formed on the n-type semiconductor surface includes transparent conducting oxide thin film, zinc oxide (ZnO) thin film, or ZnO:aluminum thin film.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - METALLURGY - Preferred Material: The substrate includes aluminum alloy, steel, stainless steel, or brass.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - POLYMERS - Preferred Material: The substrate includes plastic.