TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Components: The low work function electrode comprises aluminum. The low work function electrode comprises a thin layer of magnesium, calcium, barium, lithium fluoride, cesium fluoride or cesium carbonate that is covered with aluminum. The photoactive layer further comprises inorganic nanoparticles composite comprising group-IV, II-VI, III-V, IV-VI, I-III-VI2 semiconductors and/or its semiconductor alloys; or an organic-inorganic nanoparticle composite comprising cadmium selenide nanoparticle poly(3-hexylthiophene) composite. The group-IV semiconductor comprises silicon, germanium, or carbon-based materials including graphene, carbon nanotubes, and/or fullerenes or their derivatives. The transparent high work function electrode comprises indium-tin-oxide, indium-zinc-oxide, zinc-tin-oxide, copper-indium-oxide, copper-zinc-oxide, gallium-zinc-oxide, aluminum-zinc-oxide, or carbon nanotubes. The zinc oxide nanoparticle layer has a thickness of 5-50 nm. The zinc oxide nanoparticles have a mean diameter of 2-6 nm and average roughness of 3 nm. The zinc oxide nanoparticle layer comprises zinc oxide nanoparticles doped with metal atoms selected from aluminum, indium, antimony, magnesium, gadolinium, gallium and/or copper. The coupled zinc oxide nanospheres comprise dimers, trimers, tetramers or pentamers.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - METALLURGY - Preferred Component: The semiconductor alloy comprises lead sulfide, lead selenide, cadmium telluride, Six-Ge1-x, ZnxCd1-xSeyTe1-y, CdTeySe1-y, InxGa1-xAs or Cu(InxGa1-x)Se2.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Component: The transparent high work function electrode comprises poly(3,4-ethylenedioxylenethiophene)-polystyrene sulfonic acid on indium-tin-oxide. The zinc salt is zinc acetate. The tetraalkylammonium hydroxide is tetramethylammonium hydroxide. The polar aprotic solvent is dimethylsulfoxide. The alcohol is ethanol. Preferred Method: The isolation comprises washing with an alcohol-hydrocarbon mixture comprising ethanol (1-4 pts.wt.) and heptane.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - POLYMERS - Preferred Component: The organic polymer comprises repeating units comprising optionally substituted thiophene, phenylene vinylene, phenylene ethynylene and/or fluorene. The zinc oxide nanoparticle layer further comprises a blend comprising lithium fluoride, cesium fluoride, cesium carbonate, cesium hydroxide and/or a polymer. The polymer comprises poly(methyl methacrylate), polyethylene oxide, poly(9,9- bis(6'(diethanolamino)hexyl)-fluorene) or its quaternized salt, or poly(9,9- bis(3'-(N,N-dimethylamino)propyl)-2,7-fluorene)-alt-2,7-(9,9-dioctylfluorene))or its quaternized salts.