TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Properties: The area ratio of the surface (b) to the surface (a) is 1-5. The area ratio of the surface (b) to surface (c) is 0.2-5, 0.2-1 or 1-5.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - METALLURGY - Preferred Composition: The current collector is made of metal or its alloy, copper, silver, gold, platinum, palladium, titanium, aluminum, nickel, steel and/or carbon. The heat-transfer rod is made of metal or its alloy. The three-dimensional electrode array further comprises electrolyte (a) positioned between each of the plate electrodes and electrolyte (b) positioned between each of rod electrodes, and heat-transfer rods positioned in thermal communication with heat sink or heat source, inert coating on a surface of each aperture. The rod electrodes comprise a current collector positioned in thermal communication with heat sink or heat source. The dielectric material is chosen from metal oxide, silicon oxide, carbon, nanocarbon, graphite and graphene. The plate electrode is made of metal or its alloy, carbon, graphite, lithium, manganese oxide (Mn2O4 or MnO2), lead, lead oxide, sodium, sulfur, iron, zinc, silver, nickel, tin, germanium, silicon, antimony, bismuth, nickel peroxide, cadmium, ferric sulfide, lithium-cobalt oxide, magnesium-doped lithium-cobalt oxide, lithium-nitrogen oxide, lithium-manganese oxide, aluminum-doped lithium-manganese oxide, lithium-iron phosphate doped with magnesium, aluminum, titanium, niobium and tantalum, amorphous carbon, mesocarbon microbeads, lithium-aluminum compound (Li9Al4 or Li3Al), lithium-zinc compound, lithium-silver compound (Li10Ag3), boron, lithium-boron compound (Li7B6), lithium-silicon compound (Li12Si7 or Li13Si4), tin, lithium-tin compound (LiSSn2, Li13SnS, Li7Sn2 or Li22SnS), lithium-antimony compound (Li2Sb or Li3Sb), lithium-bismuth compound (Li3Bi), tin oxide (SnO2 or SnO), manganese oxide, cobalt oxide, nickel oxide, iron oxide, lithium ferrate, titanium oxide, lithium titanate, vanadium oxide, glass-doped tin-boron-phosphorus oxide compound and/or mesocarbon microbeads coated with poly(o-methoxyanaline), poly(3-octylthiophene) and poly(vinylidene fluoride).    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - POLYMERS - Preferred Composition: The electrolyte comprises aqueous solution, organic solvent, lithium salt, sulfuric acid, potassium hydroxide, ionic liquid, solid electrolyte and polymer, poly(ethylene oxide), poly(propylene oxide), poly(styrene), poly(imide), poly(amine), poly(acrylonitrile), polyvinyl idene fluoride, methoxyethoxyethyoxy phosphazine, diiodomethane, 1,3-diiodopropane, N,N-dimethylformamide; imethypropylene urea, ethylene carbonate, diethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, propylene carbonate, block copolymer lithium electrolyte doped with lithium salt, glass, glass doped with lithium iodide, lithium fluoride, lithium chloride, lithium oxide-boron oxide-bismuth trioxide, lithium oxide-boron oxide-phosphorus pentoxide and lithium oxyborate. The inert coating is made of Teflon (RTM: polytetrafluoroethylene), Delrin (RTM: acetal resin), Kapton (RTM: polyimide film), polytetrafluoroethylene, perfluoroalkoxy, fluorinated ethylene propylene, polypropylene, polyethylene, polyethyleneoxide polymer and/or Nafion (RTM: sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene-based fluoropolymer membrane).