TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Composition: In the composition, in the formula (1), R1 and R2 are the same or different and each is independently hydrogen, alkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, alkenyl, or aryl, any of which is optionally substituted, where R1 and R2 are both hydrogen. The R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, aryl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, heteroaryl, N(R4)2, SR4, Si(R4)2, OR4, or OM, any of which is optionally substituted, M is a metal or cationic species; and each R4 is independently a substituent, optionally substituted, and where at least one of R1, R2, or R3 is haloalkyl. The R3 is OR4 or N(R4)2 and each R4 is independently a substituent, optionally substituted. Each R4 is the same or different and each is independently hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, haloalkyl, heteroalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or OH, any of which is optionally substituted, where R4 is alkyl substituted with an unsubstituted or substituted aryl or an unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl. Moreover, R3 is N(CH3)2, NH-phenyl, NH-biphenyl, NHCH2(C triple bond CH), OH, OMe, OEt, OM, where M is a metal ion, OCH2(C triple bond CH), OCH2CH2(2-bromophenyl), OCH2(adamantyl), or OCH2C(4-chlorophenyl)3. The R1 and R2 are both hydrogen; and R3 is OH, or OMe or OEt. The ratio of the number of functional groups to the number of carbon atom of the graphene or graphene oxide is at least 1-50, or at least 1-5.The functional group is capable of binding a metal ion, where the functional group comprises positively or negatively charged groups.The function group comprises an electrochemically active species, where the electrochemically active species is a conducting polymer, metal, semi-metal, or semiconductors, where the electrochemically active species comprises an amide.The functional group is capable of reducing oxygen, where the functional group comprises a ligand for binding one or more metal atoms.The composition comprises a set of graphene sheets or graphene oxide sheets.The functional group is capable of associating with and/or storing redox active species, where the redox species is lithium.The composition is arranged in an anode or cathode of a battery. The carbon-based nanostructure is associated with a second carbon-based nanostructure via the functional group.Preferred Method: In fabricating the functionalized carbon-based nanostructure, the step of reacting comprises reacting the carbon-based nanostructure with the reactant comprising at least one carbon atom to transform the allylic functional group into a second allylic functional group; and the step of causing comprises allowing the second allylic functional group to undergo a rearrangement to form a carbon-carbon bond between the carbon atom within the reactant and a carbon atom within the carbon-based nanostructure.The carbon-based nanostructure is graphene or graphene oxide.The step of causing comprises a sigmatropic rearrangement reaction, a nucleophilic substitution reaction, or a metal-catalyzed reaction.The rearrangement reaction is a Claisen rearrangement reaction, or a Carroll Claisen rearrangement reaction.The reactant comprising at least one carbon atom is CH3C(OCH3)3 or an acyl ketene species.The carbon-based nanostructure is graphene or graphene oxide. The allylic functional group is positioned on or within the basal plane of the graphene or graphene oxide.The method further comprises: treating the carbon-based nanostructure with a reducing agent.The carbon-based nanostructure graphene oxide, and the method further comprises treating the carbon-based nanostructure with a reducing agent to produce a substituted graphene.The reducing agent is sodium borohydride, lithium aluminum hydride, hydrazine, ascorbic acid, potassium hydroxide, thermal annealing, or ammonia.Alternatively, fabricating the functionalized carbon-based nanostructure comprises providing a carbon-based nanostructure including a group having the formula (I); and reacting the carbon-based nanostructure with a reactant to produce a group having the formula (II).C1, C2, and C3 = part of a fused network of aromatic rings within the carbon-based nanostructure;OR5 = pendant group of the fused network of aromatic rings, and R5 is a substituent, optionally substituted; andR6, R7, and R8 = optionally substituted substituent.The R5 is hydrogen, metal, alkyl, aryl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, or oxygen-protection group, any of which is optionally substituted, where R5 is hydrogen. The R6 and R7 are the same or different and each is independently hydrogen, alkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, alkenyl, or aryl, any of which is optionally substituted, where R6 and R7 are both hydrogen. The R8 is hydrogen, alkyl, aryl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, heteroaryl, N(R4)2, SR4, Si(R4)2, OR4, or OM, any of which is optionally substituted, M is a metal or cationic species; and R4 is a substituent, optionally substituted. The R8 is OR4 or N(R4)2; and R4 is a substituent, optionally substituted. Each R4 are the same or different and is independently hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, haloalkyl, heteroalkyl, heteroaryl, aryl, or OH, any of which is optionally substituted. The R4 is alkyl substituted with an unsubstituted or substituted aryl or an unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkyl. The R8 is N(CH3)2, NH-phenyl, NH-biphenyl, NHCH2(C triple bond CH), OH, OMe, OEt, OM, where M is a metal ion, OCH2(C triple bond CH), OCH2CH2(2-bromophenyl), OCH2(adamantyl), or OCH2C(4-chlorophenyl)3. The R1 and R2 are both hydrogen; and R8 is OH, or OMe or OEt. The ratio of the number of groups of formula (II) to the number of carbon atom of the graphene or graphene oxide is at least 1-50, or at least 1-5.The group of formula (II) is capable of binding a metal ion, where the group of formula (II) comprises positively or negatively charged groups, or an electrochemically active species. The electrochemically active species is a conducting polymer, metal, semi-metal, or semiconductors. The electrochemically active species comprises an amide.The group of formula (II) is capable of reducing oxygen, where the group of formula (II) comprises a ligand for binding one or more metal atoms. Moreover, a set of graphene sheets or graphene oxide sheets is comprised.The functional group is capable of associating with and/or storing redox active species.The redox species is lithium.The carbon-based nanostructure is associated with a second carbon-based nanostructure via the group of formula (II).The method comprises a sigmatropic rearrangement reaction, a nucleophilic substitution reaction, or a metal-catalyzed reaction. The rearrangement reaction is a Claisen rearrangement reaction. The reacting proceeds via an intermediate group having formula (III).R9, R10, and R11 =the same or different and each is independently a substituent, optionally substituted; or where R9 and R10 together form =NR14 or =O;R14 = optionally substituted substituent; andn = 2 or 3.The compound of formula (III) is rearranged to form a compound of formula (II), and R8 is R9 or R10, or a salt or protonated version, and R7 and R6 is an R11 or a salt or protonated version. Each R1 is the same or different and is independently hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, haloalkyl, heteroalkyl, alkenyl, aryl, heteroaryl, -OH, OR4, or -C(=O)R4, any of which is optionally substituted. The R9, R10, and R14 are each independently hydrogen, alkyl, aryl, alkenyl, cycloalkyl, heteroalkyl, heteroaryl, N(R4)2, SR4, Si(R4)2, OR4, or OM, any of which is optionally substituted; M is a metal or cationic species; and each R4 is a substituent, optionally substituted. The group of formula (III) comprises the structure of Formulas (2-7 or 8); or allylic vinyl ether, allylic ester, allylic imidate, allylic ketene acetal, allylic beta-keto ester, allylic ?,- ketene acetal ,or allylic metallo enolate, respectively. The group of formula (III) comprises the structure: allylic vinyl ether, allylic ester, or allylic beta-keto ester. The method comprises further functionalizing the group of formula (II). The carbon-based nanostructure is graphene or graphene oxide. The method as well comprises: treating the carbon-based nanostructure with a reducing agent. The carbon-based nanostructure graphene oxide, and the method further comprises treating the carbon-based nanostructure with a reducing agent to produce a substituted graphene. The reducing agent is sodium borohydride, lithium aluminum hydride, hydrazine, ascorbic acid, potassium hydroxide, thermal annealing, or ammonia.Preferred Device: The device is capable of storing charge, where the device is a capacitor.The device is an electrochemical double layer capacitor.The device further comprises at least one redox active material.Preferred Composite: In the composite, the composition is covalently linked to the matrix material, where the covalent linkage is via an epoxide, amine, or urethane linkage. The carbon-based nanostructure is functionalized such that it can be dispersed in the matrix material.The functionalization has a negative Flory interaction parameter with the matrix material. EXAMPLE - No suitable example given.