TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - ELECTRONICS - Preferred Method: The substrate comprises a dielectric material, a semiconducting material and/or a metallic material, preferably glass, silicon dioxide, neoceram or sapphire. The method further comprises: (C1) selectively doping the substrate with carbon, subsequent to the step (A1) but prior to the step (B1) to produce a first carbide layer within a first surface (202) of the substrate or a second carbide layer within the second surface of the substrate; (C2) selectively doping the substrate with a first dopant to produce the first graphene layer or the second graphene layer with a first charge carrier, where the step (C2) is conducted either prior to or subsequently to the step (B1) when the substrate comprises the semiconducting material, or is conducted subsequent to the step (B1) when the substrate comprises the dielectric material or the metallic material; (D1) selectively doping the substrate with a second dopant to produce the first graphene layer or the second graphene layer with a second charge carrier, where the step (D1) is conducted prior to or subsequent to the step (B1) when the substrate comprises the semiconducting material, or is conducted subsequent to the step (B1) when the substrate comprises the dielectric material or the metallic material; and (E1) passivating the first side wall prior to the step (B1) to inhibit graphene growth on the first side wall during the step (B1), where the step (E1) comprises depositing a protection layer on the first side wall. The step (C1) comprises performing ion implantation to the entire first surface or the entire second surface with elemental carbon, where the ion implantation is performed with a dose of 108 to 1021 ions/cm2, and energy of 5-400 KeV. In the method: the steps of doping the substrate with the first dopant and doping the substrate with the second dopant are performed concurrently or sequentially; and the substrate is doped with the first dopant having a first concentration and with the second dopant having a second concentration, where the first concentration is different than or the same as the second concentration. The step (A1) comprises etching the first trench in the substrate or depositing the first element on the substrate, where a top of the first element defines the first surface. The step of depositing the first element on the substrate further comprises first sputtering a metallic catalyst on the substrate prior to sputtering deposition of carbide or carbon, thus promoting subsequent growth of the first graphene layer or the second graphene layer. The step of depositing the protection layer is performed using atomic layer deposition, where the atomic layer deposition is repeated a number of times for deposition of the protection layer to a predetermined thickness. The step (E1) comprises: oxidizing the substrate to form a first oxidation layer on the first surface, a second oxidation layer on the second surface and a third oxidation layer on the first side wall; and selectively removing the first and second oxidation layers, thus retaining the third oxidation layer on the first side wall. The step (B1) comprises heating the substrate to concurrently form the first graphene layer on the first surface and the second graphene layer on the second surface, where the substrate is heated by exposing the substrate to many heat cycles with quenching, or rapid thermal anneal including a pulsed source, between the heat cycles. Preferred Components: The first dopant is an acceptor producing a positive-type (p-type) doping or a donor producing a negative-type (n-type) doping. The second dopant is different than the first dopant, and the second charge carrier has a charge opposite to the first charge carrier. The second dopant is an acceptor producing a p-type doping or a donor producing an n-type doping. The first graphene layer or the second graphene layer includes a first portion and a second portion adjacent to the first portion, where the first portion has the first charge carrier, and the second portion has the second charge carrier, thus creating a positive-negative (PN) junction between the first and second portions of the first graphene layer or the second graphene layer. The first graphene layer or the second layer further includes a third portion adjacent to the second portion, where: the third portion has the first carrier; the first, second and third portions collectively create a PNP or NPN bipolar junction in the first graphene layer or the second graphene layer; the first portion includes a first sub-layer of the first graphene layer or the second graphene layer; the second portion includes a second sub-layer of the first graphene layer or the second graphene layer; the second sub-layer overlays on the first sub-layer; the third portion includes a third sub-layer of the first graphene layer or the second graphene layer; and the third sub-layer overlays on the second sub-layer. The first orthogonal projection of the first surface of the first element on the common plane has a first width and the second orthogonal projection of the second surface of the first trench on the common plane has a second width, where the first width is 2-250 nm, and the second width is 5-500 nm. The first element is a rib (preferred), a mesa or a pillar, where an orthogonal projection of the rib on the common plane has a length and a width, and the length is at least two times the width. The first side wall has an obtuse entry angle with respect to the first surface, thus causing the combination of the first surface and the second surface to have a combined surface area that is greater than a surface area of the corresponding portions of the substrate prior to the patterning. The protection layer comprises: a first protection layer comprising a first dielectric, and a second protection layer overlaid on the first protection layer, where the second protection layer comprises a second dielectric that is different than the first dielectric; and many layers, where successive layers alternate between a first material and a different second material.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Components: The protection layer comprises: silicon dioxide, silicon nitride or silicon mononitride; or a metallic material comprising titanium, nickel, copper or palladium, thus forming a lead that connects the first graphene layer and the second graphene layer. EXAMPLE - No suitable example given.