TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY - Preferred Cell: The cell further comprises lithium salt dissolved in water. The cathode further comprises a single catalyst composition, not platinum, that catalyzes both the oxygen evolution reaction and the oxygen reduction reaction. The cathode comprises a first catalyst composition and a second catalyst composition, where first catalyst composition catalyzes the oxygen evolution reaction during cell charge and the second catalyst composition catalyzing the oxygen reduction reaction during cell discharge.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Components: The catholyte comprises water; and carboxylic acid/amino acid/hydroxy acid dissolved in water. The catholyte further comprises solid phase carboxylic acid in contact with its solution. The catholyte is saturated with the carboxylic acid. The pH of the catholyte prior to initial discharge is less than 7 (preferably less than 6, especially less than 4, particularly less than 3). The catholyte preferably comprises: a) a metal acid salt of a polycarboxylic acid comprising a carboxylate anion, at least one acidic proton, and at least one metal cation or a neutral or acid onium salt of polycarboxylic acid comprising a carboxylate anion, at least one onium cation, and at least one acidic proton if the onium salt is an acid onium salt, where the metal acid salt or the onium neutral or acid salt is present in the catholyte prior to actively operating the battery cell; b) water and an inorganic acid salt selected from lithium dihydrogen phosphate and/or lithium hydrogen selenite; c) water, an aprotic solvent, and a carboxylic acid derivative, where the hydroxyl moiety of the carboxyl group is replaced by an atom or a group of atoms comprising an electronegative atom, and the chemical group is not a hydroxyl group; d) water, an aprotic solvent, and an ester of an inorganic acid having formula X(OR')n; e) water, and an organic acid or an amide comprising an element selected from sulfur, nitrogen and phosphorus; f) water, and a phenol (substituted at 2-6 positions by R1a-R5a respectively); g) water, and aminium salt/amphoteric hydroxide/polyprotic organic acid dissolved in water; h) water, and an ammonium salt; i) water and a chemical species dissolved in water, where the chemical species undergoes an alkaline hydrolysis via reaction with a cell discharge product over the course of cell discharge; or j) water, and an organic acid having a vapor pressure less than that of acetic acid (where the vapor pressure of the acid is less than 1 mmHg (preferably less than 10-3 mmHg)). The carboxylic acid has the formula R2-C(R3)(R1)-COOH. The carboxylic acid is selected from malonic acid, glutaric acid, and methylsuccinic acid. The equivalent weight of the acid that partakes in the cell discharge reaction, is selected from 50-70 g/equivalent of H+; 71-90 g/equivalent of H+; 91-110 g/equivalent of H+. The concentration of carboxylic acid in the catholyte is 0.05-1 molar. The concentration of malonic acid in the catholyte is 0.5-2 molar, 2-4 molar, or greater than 4 molar. The amino acid has the formula NH2-R-COOH. The hydroxy acid has the formula OH-R-COOH.R'=aliphatic or aromatic optionally substituted organic radical;X=N(=O)2, S(=O)2, or P(=O);n=basicity of an acid from which the ester was derived;R1a-R5a=R';R1=organic radical;R2 and R3=H or organic radical;R=aliphatic or aromatic optionally substituted organic divalent radical.