TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Components: The carbon electrode comprises a carbonaceous material comprising graphite, hard carbon, carbon black, carbon fibers and/or graphene. The metal electrode comprises lithium and a metal including sodium, zinc, silicon, magnesium, aluminum, tin and/or iron. The cathode comprises sulfur and/or sulfur compounds. The metal electrode is in direct contact with the carbon electrode during operation. The sulfur compound comprises a metal compound of formula (Lix1aSy1a). The cathode comprises a lithium intercalation material comprising a metal compound of formula (Li4-xMxTi5O12), (LiMC1xMC21-xPO4), (Li3V2-xM1x(PO4)3), (LiMC1axMC2a1-xO2),(LiMC1axMC2ayMC31-x-yO2), (LiMn2-yXyO4), (LiNi(0.5-y1)X1yMn(1.5)O4), (x1Li2MnO3.(1-x1)LiMC1by2MC2bzMC3a1-y2-zO2), (Li2M2SiO4), (Li2-x(Fe1-yMny)P2O7), lithium vanadium fluorophosphate, manganese dioxide, vanadium(V) oxide, vanadium oxide, lithium trivanadate and/or chromium oxide (Cr3O8 or Cr2O5). The carbon electrode further comprises metalated carbon during charging and discharging of the device, metal ions intercalated or deposited in the electrode, and lithiated carbon (LiC6) at the carbon electrode. The metal ions comprise lithium ions.M = Mg, Al, Ba, Sr or Ta;MC1, MC2 = Fe, Mn, Ni, Co, Cr or Ti;M1 = Cr, Co, Fe, Mg, Y, Ti, Nb or Ce;MC1a, MC2a, MC3 = Fe, Mn, Ni, Co, Cr, Ti, Mg or Al;X = Cr, Al, or Fe;X1 = Fe, Cr, Zn, Al, Mg, Ga, V or Cu;MC1b, MC2b, MC3a = Mn, Ni, Co, Cr or Fe;M2 = Mn, Fe, or Co;x, y = 0-1;y1 = 0-0.5;x1 = 0.3-0.5;y2 = 0.5;x1a = 0-4;y1a = 1-8; andz = 0.5.Preferred Method: The method further comprises metalating the carbon electrode with metal from the metal electrode to form metalated carbon, extracting metal ions from the metal electrode through the metalated carbon of the carbon electrode, intercalating and depositing metal ions in the carbon electrode.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - INSTRUMENTATION AND TESTING - Preferred Components: The energy storage device has a reversible capacity greater than or equal to 800 mAh g-1 at 0.8 C, a capacity greater than or equal to 750 mAh g-1 for more than 200 cycles, and further comprises an anode separator between the carbon electrode and the metal electrode.