TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - INSTRUMENTATION AND TESTING - Preferred Components: In the solar module (S1): the particles are interspersed in the back side encapsulant, where the particles disposed in the front side encapsulant are made of the same material; the particles are metallic and oblong; the particles disposed in the front side encapsulant are insulated from contact with the photovoltaic cell; the particles are insulated from contact with the photovoltaic cell by the front side encapsulant; and at least some of the particles of the region in the front side encapsulant are in contact with at least some of the particles interspersed in the back side encapsulant. The solar module (S1) further comprises: many regions of thermally conductive particles disposed in the front side encapsulant, where the regions extend in a direction generally perpendicular to the photovoltaic cell from a position near a front of the photovoltaic cell; and a structure positioned adjacent to a lower surface of the solar module, where the particles of the region in the front side encapsulant and the particles in the back side encapsulant transfer heat from an upper surface of the solar module through the encapsulants to the structure, and the structure is a metallic back sheet. In the solar module (S2): the regions extend perpendicular to the front side of the encapsulant to facilitate anisotropic heat transfer; the regions extend in a direction generally perpendicular to the photovoltaic cell from a position near a front of the photovoltaic cell; the regions extend from the position near the front of the photovoltaic cell to a position near the upper surface of the solar module, where the regions facilitate the anisotropic transfer of heat from the upper surface through the front side encapsulant; the regions are separated from each other by at least the front side encapsulant; the regions are insulated from contact with the photovoltaic cell by the front side encapsulant; at least some of the regions are disposed in both the front side encapsulant and back side encapsulant; and the back side encapsulant is optically opaque and thermally conductive. The solar module (S2) further comprises: the structure, where the regions in the front side encapsulant and the back side encapsulant transfer heat from the upper surface of the solar module through the encapsulants to the structure, and the structure is at least one of a back sheet or a heat sink; and a coating (112) disposed adjacent to the upper surface of the module, where the coating has relatively high emissivity in wavelengths above 1100 nm and relatively low emissivity in wavelengths below 1100 nm. In the solar module (S3): the back side encapsulant has a heat transfer coefficient greater than the front side encapsulant and the back side encapsulant is thermally conductive; and the back sheet is metallic. The solar module (S3) further comprises the coating, where the coating comprises layers.