TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Parameters: Covalent-bonding conditions are oxygen content of nanocarbon structure, functionalization of nanocarbon structure, crystalline structure of nanocarbon structure, and/or growth conditions of inorganic particles. Preferred Processes: Inorganic particle is covalently bonded to nanocarbon structure by forming interface consisting of inorganic nanocrystals and/or carbon with graphene structure and/or CNT structure, covalently coupling to transfer electrons from active material interfacing with inorganic crystals to current collector electrically coupled to nanocarbon structure, and covalently bonding inorganic particles to oxidized region of graphene oxide sheet. Inorganic particles are grown by forming hybrid material consisting of nanoparticles predominantly covalently bonded with graphene and/or CNT structure. Functional structure in nanocarbon structure is arranged to covalently bond to a particular type of inorganic particle, and inorganic particles are covalently bonded to nanocarbon structure by covalently bonding the particular type of inorganic particles to functional structure and using interaction between inorganic particles and nanocarbon material to set a conductance characteristic of hybrid conductor. Nanocarbon structure consisting of graphene sheet and/or CNT with certain degree of oxidation is formed, and inorganic particles are grown to form single-crystalline particles while controlling reaction temperature and solvent to set a structure and morphology of hybrid conductor structure. Inorganic particles are grown on defective sites and/or oxidized sites of nanocarbon structure. Shape of hybrid structure consisting of inorganic particles covalently bonded to nanocarbon structure is defined. Covalent bonding characteristics are controlled via temperature and by using determined covalent-bonding conditions, and beta -nickel(II) hydroxide ( beta -Ni(OH)2)/CNT hybrid conductor. Material which forms part of covalently-bonded interface between inorganic particles and nanocarbon structure is used to control covalent bonding. Ni(OH)2 nanoparticles are covalently bonded to nanocarbon structure made by growing nanoparticles on oxidized nanocarbon substrate in solution. Precursor particles are used to form nanoparticles at locations on graphene sheet, and nanoparticles are diffused across a graphitic lattice of graphene sheet and re-crystallized into single-crystalline nanoplates. Spinel oxide nanoparticles are covalently bonded to nitrogen-doped nanocarbon structure. Hybrid conductor is formed by hydrolyzing cobalt acetate (CoAc2) and manganese acetate (MnAc2), coating hydrolyzed materials on graphene oxide, and solvothermally treating graphene oxide. Graphene oxide is doped with nitrogen before coating hydrolyzed materials. CNTs are covalently bonded with cobalt oxide. Preferred Compositions: Graphene sheet and/or CNT contains 3-30% oxygen.