TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY - Preferred Components: The active sulfur species is dissolved in the aqueous electrolyte. The active sulfur concentration in the aqueous electrolyte prior to initially operating the cell, is greater than 0.5 (preferably 12) molar sulfur. In the aqueous lithium sulfur electrochemical cell, just prior to initially operating the cell, the concentration of the dissolved active sulfur species in the electrolyte is greater than 1 molar sulfur and the active stoichiometric ratio is Li2S, Li2Sx, where x is greater than 1, Li2Sx, where x is greater than 1 and smaller than 5, Li2S5, or Li2Sx, where x is greater than 5. In the aqueous lithium sulfur electrochemical cell, just prior to initial cell operation, the active sulfur species in contact with the aqueous electrolyte further comprises solid phase lithium sulfide. The moles of active sulfur of solid phase lithium sulfide are greater than the moles of active sulfur dissolved in the electrolyte by a factor comprising at least 2 (preferably at least 10). The anode electroactive material is substantially devoid of active lithium upon cell fabrication and prior to initial cell operation. The anode electro-active material is intercalation materials capable of electrochemically intercalating lithium upon electro-reduction, alloying materials capable of electrochemically alloying with lithium upon electro-reduction, and materials capable of forming lithium inter-metallic phases upon electro-reduction. The water is the main liquid solvent in the electrolyte. The pH of the aqueous electrolyte is 9-14. The electrolyte further comprises at least one non-aqueous solvent. The solid electron transfer medium comprises a core component comprising a porous core component or a planar core component. The porous core component is a porous matrix structure. The core component is composed of a material that is: electronically insulating and the core component itself is an insulator; or electronically conductive and the core component itself is conductive. The electron transfer medium further comprises an exterior surface layer component covering the core component, where the exterior surface layer defines an exterior surface in contact with the catholyte, and at least a portion of the exterior surface in contact with the catholyte is defined by a material having an overpotential for hydrogen evolution that is greater than 100 mV. The anode structure further comprises a substantially impervious lithium ion conductive protective membrane architecture having a first and second major surface, where the first surface is in direct contact with the aqueous catholyte, and the membrane architecture configured in the cell to protect the electro-active material from contacting the aqueous electrolyte. The aqueous electrolyte is substantially devoid of molecular oxygen and has a molecular oxygen concentration that is less than a value comprising 1000 (preferably 10) parts per million.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Components: The high overpotential material is metals, metal alloys or metal sulfides. The high overpotential material is a metal comprising cobalt, copper, manganese, zinc, lead, cadmium, tellurium, indium, gallium, nickel or zinc. The high overpotential material is a metal sulfide comprising cobalt sulfide, copper sulfide, manganese sulfide, zinc sulfide, lead sulfide, cadmium sulfide, indium sulfide, tellurium sulfide, gallium sulfide, nickel sulfide or zinc sulfide. The anode electroactive material is lithium metal or a lithium metal alloy.