TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - INORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Components: The nanoparticles contain a material containing semiconductor and/or metal, preferably rare-earth material, transition metal, group-IV-VI material, group-IV material, or group-III-V material. The nanoparticles are metallic nanoparticles or semiconductor nanoparticles. The transition metal is chosen from scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, technetium, ruthenium, molybdenum, rhenium, tungsten, gold, platinum, palladium, silver, manganese, cobalt, cadmium, hafnium, tantalum, rhodium, osmium, iridium, mercury, rutherfordium, dubnium, seaborgium, bohrium, hassium, and meitnerium. The semiconductor nanoparticles are chosen from cadmium selenide, cadmium sulfide, cadmium telluride, zinc selenide, zinc sulfide, zinc telluride, mercury sulfide, mercury telluride, and cadmium-zinc sulfide, preferably cadmium selenide, cadmium sulfide, and/or cadmium telluride. The group-III-V material is chosen from indium arsenide, indium phosphide, indium nitride, gallium nitride, indium antimonide, indium-arsenic phosphide, indium-gallium-arsenide, gallium arsenide, gallium phosphide, gallium antimonide, aluminum phosphide, aluminum nitride, aluminum nitride, aluminum antimonide, cadmium-selenide-telluride, zinc-cadmium-selenide, lead selenide, lead telluride, lead sulfide, lead-tin telluride, and titanium-tin telluride. The group-IV material is carbon, silicon, germanium, tin, or lead. The nanoparticles are preferably chosen from zinc oxide, and silver sulfide, boron sulfide, antimony sulfide, copper sulfide, copper-indium sulfide, copper-iron sulfide, copper-gallium sulfide, copper-aluminum sulfide, silver sulfide, or copper-zinc-tin-sulfide. The dopant material of the element is a metal material or a non-metal material. The atoms or ions contained in the dopant material are chosen from lithium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, cesium, beryllium, calcium, strontium, barium, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, iron, nickel, copper, zinc, yttrium, lanthanum, zirconium, niobium, technetium, ruthenium, molybdenum, rhenium, tungsten, gold, platinum, palladium, silver, cobalt, cadmium, hafnium, tantalum, rhodium, osmium, iridium, mercury, boron, bismuth, phosphorus, chlorine, and iodine. The atoms or ions contained in the dopant material are preferably silver or gold. The inorganic material contained in the substrate is chosen from silicon, tin, compounds of boron, tellurium, geranium, gallium, gallium arsenide, gallium phosphide, cadmium telluride, gallium-aluminum arsenide, indium phosphide, gallium-arsenide phosphide, cadmium sulfide, copper-indium-gallium diselenide, mercury-cadmium telluride, copper-indium sulfide, glass, porous glass, quartz, indium tin oxide, fluorinated tin oxide, and mica. The substrate preferably contains silicon or gallium arsenide.    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - ORGANIC CHEMISTRY - Preferred Components: The element further contains linker molecules. The linker molecules are organic molecules having one or more functional groups. The functional groups contained in the linker molecules are chosen from thiol, carboxylic acid, amine, hydroxyl and silane. The linker molecules are preferably dithiol or disilane molecules. The dithiol molecules are chosen from ethanedithiol, nonanedithiol, decanedithiol and benzenedimethanethiol. The disilane molecules are chosen from bis(trichlorosilyl)hexane and (2-methylene-l,3-propanediyl)bis(trichlorosilane).    TECHNOLOGY FOCUS - POLYMERS - Preferred Components: The substrate contains polymer or inorganic material. The polymer contained in the substrate is chosen from polyazulene, polyphenylene, polyaniline, polypyrene, polynaphthalene, poly(pyrrole), poly(thiophene), poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene), polyazepine, polyindole, polycarbazole, poly(p-phenylene vinylene), poly(acetylene), poly(p-phenylene sulfide), and poly-3-hexyl thiophene.